List of Turkic dynasties and countries

The following is a list of dynasties, states or empires which are Turkic-speaking, of Turkic origins, or both. There are currently six recognized Turkic sovereign states. Additionally, there are six federal subjects of Russia in which a Turkic language is a majority, and three where Turkic languages are the minority, and also Crimea, a disputed territory between Ukraine and Russia where Turkic languages are the minority. There have been numerous Turkic confederations, dynasties, and empires throughout history across the Eurasian continent.

World map with present-day independent recognized Turkic countries highlighted in red

Contemporary entities with at least one Turkic language recognized as official

Republic Day

Name	Years
Azerbaijan	May 28, 1918
Turkey	October 29, 1923
Kyrgyzstan	October 14, 1924
Uzbekistan	October 27, 1924
Kazakhstan	June 19, 1925
Turkmenistan	October 27, 1991

Current independent states

Name	Years
Turkey	1923	75% Turkish
Azerbaijan	1991	91.6% Azerbaijanis, 0.43% Turkish, 0.29% Tatars.^[1]
Kazakhstan	1991	63.1% Kazakhs, 2.9% Uzbeks, 1.4% Uyghurs, 1.3% Tatars, 0.6% Turkish, 0.5% Azerbaijanis, 0.1% Kyrgyz.^[2]
Kyrgyzstan	1991	70.9% Kyrgyz, 14.3% Uzbeks, 0.9% Uyghurs, 0.7% Turkish, 0.6% Kazakhs, 0.6% Tatars, 0.3% Azerbaijanis.^[3]
Turkmenistan	1991	75.6% Turkmens, 9.2% Uzbeks, 2.0% Kazakhs, 1.1% Turkish 0.7% Tatars^[4]
Uzbekistan	1991	71.4% Uzbeks, 4.1% Kazakhs, 2.4% Tatars, 2.1% Karakalpaks, 1% Crimean Tatars, 0.8% Kyrgyz, 0.6% Turkmens, 0.5% Turkish, 0.2% Azerbaijanis, 0.2% Uyghurs, 0.2% Bashkirs.^[5]

De facto state

Recognized only by Turkey.

Name	Years
Northern Cyprus^[6]	1983	67.54% Turkish Cypriots, 32.45% Turkish^{[citation needed]}

Federal subjects of Russia

Turkic nations where Turkic peoples are a majority
Name
Bashkortostan	2010 – 29.5% Bashkirs, 25.4% Tatars, 2.7% Chuvash
Chuvashia	2010 – 67.7% Chuvash, 2.8% Tatars
Karachay-Cherkessia	2010 – 41.0% Karachays, 3.3% Nogais
Tatarstan	2010 – 53.2% Tatars, 3.1% Chuvash
Tuva	2010 – 82% Tuvans, 0.4% Khakas
Sakha Republic	2010 – 49.9% Yakuts, 0.2% Dolgans, 0.9% Tatars

Federal subjects of Russia where Turkic peoples are a minority
Name
Altai Republic	2010 – 34.5% Altais, 6.2% Kazakhs
Kabardino-Balkaria	2010 – 12.7% Balkars
Crimea	2014 – 12.6% Crimean Tatars, 2.3% Tatars
Khakassia	2010 – 12.1% Khakas

Autonomous regions

Name
Gagauzia in Moldova	2004 – 82.1% Gagauz.^[7]
Xinjiang in China	2000 – 45.21% Uyghurs, 6.74% Kazakhs, 0.86% Kyrgyz, 0.066% Uzbeks, 0.024% Chinese Tatars, 0.02% Salars
Karakalpakstan in Uzbekistan	36% Uzbeks, 32% Karakalpaks, 25% Kazakhs^[8]
Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic in Azerbaijan	99% Azerbaijanis^[9]
Xunhua Salar Autonomous County in China	2000 – 61.14% Salars
Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang and Salar Autonomous County in China

Historical Turkic confederations, dynasties, and states

Tribal confederations

Tiele people	Dingling	Yenisei Kirghiz^[12]	Cumans	Basmyl	Chigils
Onogurs	Ashina	Toquz Oghuz	Kipchaks	Kankalis	Yagma
Oghuz	Sabir people	Bulgars	Shatuo	Karluks	Alat

Turkic dynasties and states

Name	Notes	Years	Capital
Turkic Khaganate		552–ca. 580 682–744	Ordu Baliq
Western Turkic Khaganate		593–659	Suyab
Eastern Turkic Khaganate		581–630	Ordu Baliq
Xueyantuo		628–646
Kangar union		659–750	located in Ulutau mountains
Turk Shahi		665–850	Kabul
Türgesh		699–766	Balasagun
Kimeks		743–1220	Khagan-Kimek Imekia
Uyghur Khaganate		744–848	Ordu Baliq
Oghuz Yabgu State		750–1055	Yangikent
Karluk Yabgu State		756–940	Suyab later Balasagun
Kara-Khanid Khanate		840–1212	Balasagun, Kashgar, Samarkand
Gansu Uyghur Kingdom		848–1036	Zhangye
Kingdom of Qocho		856–1335	Gaochang, Beshbalik
Pechenegs		860–1091
Cumania^[13]^[14]		900–1220
Anatolian Beyliks		11th–16th century	Many such as Karaman, Sinop, Adana, Alanya, Kahramanmaraş.
Ahmadilis		1122–1209	Maragha
Eldiguzids		ca.1135–1225	Nakhchivan (city) and Hamadan
Salghurids		1148–1282	Fars Province
Ottoman Empire	Also known as the Turkish Empire, Ottoman Turkey or Turkey, was an empire founded in 1299 by Oghuz Turks under Osman I in northwestern Anatolia	1299–1923	Söğüt 1299–1335, Bursa 1335–1413, Edirne 1413–1453, Istanbul 1453–1922
Sufids		1361–1379
Emirate of Kasgharia	A short lived emirate in Kashgar region.^[15]	1865-1877	Kashgar

Europe

Name	Notes	Years	Capital
Khazar Empire	The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people, who created what for its duration was the most powerful polity to emerge from the break-up of the Western Turkic Kaganate.^[16]	6th–11th century	Balanjar 650–720 ca., Samandar (city) 720s–750, Atil 750-ca.965–969
Great Bulgaria		632–668	Phanagoria 632–665
First Bulgarian Empire	Tengrist Turkic pre-Christianization;^[17] became Slavic post-Christianization	681–1018	Pliska 681–893, Preslav 893–972, Skopje 972–992, Ohrid 992–1018
Volga Bulgaria		7th century–1240s	Bolghar, Bilär
Terter dynasty		1280–1323

Middle East and North Africa

Name	Notes	Years	Capital
Tulunids	The Tulunids were a dynasty of Turkic origin^[18] and were the first independent dynasty to rule Islamic Egypt, as well as much of Syria.	868–905	al-Qatta'i
Ikhshidid Dynasty	Founded by a Turkic^[19]^[20]^[21] slave soldier, was appointed governor by the Abbasid Caliph.^[22]	935–969
Burid Dynasty		1104–1154	Damascus
Zengid Dynasty	Dynasty of Oghuz Turk origin.^[23]	1127–1250	Aleppo
Rasulids		1228–1455
Bahri dynasty	The first half of the Mamluk Sultanate was dominated by the Kipchak Turkic Bahri dynasty, after the Mongol conquest of the Kipchak steppes.	1250–1389	Cairo
Assaf dynasty	Controlled region between Beirut and Jbeil	1306–1591	Ghazir

Maghreb region

Name	Notes	Years	Capital	Map
Karamanli dynasty	The Karamanli dynasty was an independent or quasi-independent,^[24] who ruled from 1711 to 1835 in Tripolitania (Tripoli and its surroundings in present-day Libya). At their peak, the Karamanlis' influence reached Cyrenaica and Fezzan, covering most of Libya. The founder of the dynasty was Pasha Ahmed Karamanli, a descendant of the Karamanids.	1711–1835	Tripoli

Indian subcontinent

Name	Notes	Years	Capital
Mamluk Dynasty		1206–1290	Delhi
Qarlughid Dynasty		1224–1266	Ghazna, Binban
Khilji Dynasty		1290–1320	Delhi
Tughlaq Dynasty		1320–1414	Delhi
Ilyas Shahi dynasty		1342–1487	Sonargaon
Bahmani Sultanate		1347–1527	Gulbarga (1347–1425) Bidar (1425–1527)
Bengal Sultanate		1342–1538 1555–1576	Gaur Pandua Sonargaon
Malwa Sultanate		1392–1562	Dhar and Mandu
Bidar Sultanate		1489–1619
Adil Shahi dynasty		1490–1686	Bijapur
Qutb Shahi Dynasty		1518–1687	Golconda / Hyderabad
Mughal Empire	Founded by Turco-Mongol ruler Babur, adopted the Persian language in later periods.^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]	1526–1857	Agra 1526–1571, Fatehpur Sikri 1571–1585, Lahore 1585–1598, Agra 1598–1648, Shahjahanabad/Delhi 1648–1857
Tarkhan Dynasty		1554–1591	Sindh
Asaf Jahi Dynasty		1724–1948	Hyderabad

Sinicized Turkic dynasties

The Shatuo Turks founded several sinicized dynasties in northern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The official language of these dynasties was Chinese and they used Chinese titles and names.

Name	Notes	Years	Capital
Great Yan	General An Lushan rebelled against Tang Dynasty	756–763	Luoyang 756–757, Yecheng 757–759, Fanyang 759, Luoyang 759–762
Later Tang		923–936	Daming County 923, Luoyang 923–936
Later Jin^[29]	The Later Jin founder, Shi Jingtang, claimed patrilineal Han Chinese ancestry.	936–947	Taiyuan 936, Luoyang 937, Kaifeng 937–947
Later Han	Sources conflict as to the origin of the Later Han and Northern Han Emperors; some indicate Shatuo ancestry while another claims that the Emperors claimed patrilineal Han Chinese ancestry.^[30]	947–951	Kaifeng
Northern Han	Same family as Later Han. Sources conflict as to the origin of the Later Han and Northern Han Emperors; some indicate Shatuo ancestry while another claims that the Emperors claimed patrilineal Han Chinese ancestry.^[30]	951–979	Taiyuan

Turko-Persian states

The Turko-Persian tradition was an Islamic tradition of the interpretation of literary forms, practiced and patronized by Turkic rulers and speakers. Many Turko-Persian states were founded in modern-day Eastern Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.^[31]

Name		Years	Capital
Ghaznavid Empire	Ruled by a thoroughly Persianized family of Turkic mamluk origin^[32]^[33]	962–1186	Ghazna 977–1163, Lahore 1163–1186
Seljuk Empire	Ruled by a clan^[34] of originally Oghuz Turkic descent.^[32]^[35]^[36]^[37]	1037–1194	Nishapur 1037–1043, Rey, Iran 1043–1051, Isfahan 1051–1118, Hamadan Western capital 1118–1194, Merv Eastern capital (1118–1153)
Sultanate of Rûm	Persianized Oghuz Turkic dynasty^[38]	1077–1307	İznik, Iconium (Konya)
Khwarazmian dynasty	Ruled by a family of Turkic mamluk origin.^[39]	1077–1231/1256	Gurganj 1077–1212, Samarkand 1212–1220, Ghazna 1220–1221, Tabriz 1225–1231
Timurid Empire	Persianate dynasty of Turco-Mongol lineage	1370–1506	Samarkand 1370–1505, Herat 1505–1507
Kara Koyunlu	Kara Koyunlu was an Oghuz Turkic tribal federation.	1375–1468	Tabriz
Aq Qoyunlu	Aq Qoyunlu was an tribal federation from Bayandur clan of the Oghuz Turks^[40]	1378–1501	Diyarbakır 1453 – 1471, Tabriz 1468 – January 6, 1478

Turco-Mongol states

Turco-Mongol is a term describing the synthesis of Mongol and Turkic cultures by several states of Mongol origin throughout Eurasia. These states adopted Turkic languages, either among the populace or among the elite, and converted to Islam, but retained Mongol political and legal institutions. Two of these states founded by the Timurid dynasty, specifically the Timurid Empire and Mughal Empire, were influenced by the Persian and Indian cultures.

Name	Years	Capital	Notes	Map
Merkit Khanate	11th century–1200		Scholars traditionally believe that they were the Turkic people ^[41]^[42]
Kerait khanate	11th century-13th century
Ongud	1162–1227	Olon Süme	Were a Turkic tribe^[43]^[44]^[45] later mongolzied whit in Ongut-Mongol marriage alliance and Mongol empire.
Naiman Khanate	−1204
Chagatai Khanate	1225–1340s	Almaliq, Qarshi
Golden Horde	1240s–1502	Sarai Batu	Founded as an appanage of the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde gradually became Turkicized after the Empire's fragmentation
Shaybanid Khanate	1428–1599
Kazan Khanate	1438–1552	Kazan
Crimean Khanate	1441–1783	Bakhchisaray
Nogai Khanate	1440s–1634	Saray-Jük
Kazakh Khanate	1456–1847	Turkistan
Moghulistan	1462–1591
Great Horde	1466–1502	Sarai
Astrakhan Khanate	1466–1556	Xacitarxan
Siberia Khanate	1490–1598	Tyumen until 1493, Qashliq from 1493
Khanate of Bukhara	1500–1785	Bukhara
Khanate of Khiva	Yadigarids: 1511–1804^[46] Qungrats 1804-1920	Khiva
Yarkent Khanate	1514–1705	Yarkent
Arghun dynasty	1520–1554	Bukkur
Lesser Nogai Horde	1449 or 1557–1783	Voli Sarai
Budzhak Horde	17th century–18th century
Khanate of Kokand	1709–1876	Kokand
Emirate of Bukhara	1785–1920	Bukhara

Vassal khanates

The following list is of only used as vassal khanates of Turkic origin,Which was ruled by of another descent peoples.

Name	Notes	Years	Capital
Qasim Khanate	Turco-Mongol state	1452–1681	Kasimov
Kumul Khanate	Turco-Mongol state	1696–1930	Hami City
Khanates of the Iranian Azerbaijan	The Khanates were mostly ruled of Azerbaijanis origin.	18th-19th centuries	Many different
Khanates of the northern Caucasus	The Khanates were mostly ruled of Azerbaijanis origin.	18th-19th centuries	Many different

Former Provisional Governments and Republics

Name	Notes	Years	Capital
Provisional Government of Western Thrace later Independent Government of Western Thrace	Republic of Western Thrace was a small, short-lived partially recognized republic established in Western Thrace from August 31 to October 25, 1913. It encompassed the area surrounded by the rivers Maritsa (Evros) in the east, Mesta (Nestos) in the west, the Rhodope Mountains in the north and the Aegean Sea in the south. Its total territory was c. 8.600 km².^[47]	1913	Komotini
Crimean People's Republic		1917–1918	Bakhchysarai
Idel-Ural State		1917–1918
Alash Autonomy	A provisional autonomous Kazakh-Kyrgyz administration. Later integrated into Soviet Union under Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic umbrella.	1917–1920	Semey
Republic of Aras		1918–1919	Nakhchivan (city)
Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus		1918–1919	Kars
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic		1918–1920	Ganja, Azerbaijan until Sep 1918, Baku
Government of the Grand National Assembly	A provisional and revolutionary Turkish government based in Ankara during the Turkish War of Independence.	1920–1923	Ankara
People's Republic of Tannu Tuva		1921–1944	Kyzyl
First East Turkestan Republic	First East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived breakaway would-be Islamic republic founded in 1933. It was centered on the city of Kashgar in what is today the People's Republic of China-administered Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.	1933–1934	Kashgar
Republic of Hatay	Also known informally as the Republic of Hatay as Hatay State.	1938–1939	Antakya
East Turkistan Republic		1944–1949	Ghulja
Azerbaijan People's Government	Established in Iranian Azerbaijan, the APG's capital was the city of Tabriz. Its establishment and demise were a part of the Iran crisis, which was a precursor to the Cold War.	1945–1946	Tabriz
Turkish Cypriot General Committee^[48]		1963-1967	Nicosia
Provisional Cypriot Turkish Administration^[48]		1967-1974	Nicosia
Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration		1974-1975	Nicosia
Turkish Federated State of Cyprus		1975–1983	Nicosia

Soviet Republics

Name	Years	Capital
Khorezm People's Soviet Republic	1920–1924	Khiva
Bukhara People's Soviet Republic	1920–1924	Bukhara
Azerbaijan SSR	1920–1991	Baku
Uzbek SSR	1924–1991	Samarkand 1924–1930, Tashkent 1930–1991
Turkmen SSR	1924–1991	Ashgabat
Kazakh SSR	1936–1991	Almaty
Kyrgyz SSR	1936–1991	Bishkek

Autonomous Soviet Republics

Name	Years	Capital
Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1918–1924	Tashkent
Bashkir ASSR	1919–1990	Ufa
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic	1920–1925	Orenburg
Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1920–1990	Kazan
Yakut ASSR	1922–1991	Yakutsk
Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1921–1924	Vladikavkaz
Nakhchyvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1921–1990	Nakhchivan (city)
Kazak Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic	1925–1936	Almaty
Chuvash ASSR	1925–1992	Cheboksary
Karakalpak ASSR	1932–1992	Nukus
Kabardino-Balkar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1936–1991	Nalchik
Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1944–1957
Crimean ASSR	1945–1991	Simferopol
Tuvan ASSR	1961–1992
Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic	1990–1992	Gorno-Altaysk

Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union

Name	Years	Map	Capital
Chuvash Autonomous Oblast	1920–1925		Cheboksary
Kabardino-Balkar Autonomous Oblast	1921–1936		Nalchik
Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Oblast	1922–1926	Cherkessk
Gorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast	1922–1991
Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast	1924–1936		Bishkek
Karakalpak Autonomous Oblast	1925–1932		To‘rtko‘l
Karachay Autonomous Oblast	1926–1957		Mikoyan Shakhar
Khakassian Autonomous Oblast	1930–1992
Tuvan Autonomous Oblast	1944–1961		Kyzyl

Notes

^ Demographics of Azerbaijan.
^ Demographics of Kazakhstan.
^ Demographics of Kyrgyzstan
^ Demographics of Turkmenistan
^ Demographics of Uzbekistan
^ Recognized only by Turkey and the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, see Cyprus dispute.
^ Gagauzia
^ Der Fischer Weltalmanach 2011, Artikel „Karakalpakstan“, S. 496
^ http://pop-stat.mashke.org/azerbaijan-ethnic2009.htm
^ Veronika Veit, ed. (2007). The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26–31 August 2001. Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 61. ISBN 3447055375. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
^ Michael Robert Drompp (2005). Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history. Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian library (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 126. ISBN 9004141294. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
^ The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed to be of agnatic Chinese descent from Li Ling^[10]^[11]
^ Encyclopedia of European peoples, Vol.1, Ed. Carl Waldman, Catherine Mason, (Infobase Publishing Inc., 2006), 475; "The Kipchaks were a loose tribal confederation of Turkics...".
^ Vásáry, István, Cumans and Tatars: Oriental military in the pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365, (Cambridge University Press, 2005), 6; "..two Turkic confederacies, the Kipchaks and the Cumans, had merged by the twelfth century.".
^ [1]
^ Sneath 2007, p. 25.
^ Peter Sarris (2011). Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500–700. p. 308.
^ The Emergence of Muslim Rule in India: Some Historical Disconnects and Missing Links, Tanvir Anjum, Islamic Studies, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Summer 2007), 233.
^ Abulafia, David (2011). The Mediterranean in History. p. 170.
^ Haag, Michael (2012). The Tragedy of the Templars: The Rise and Fall of the Crusader States.
^ Bacharach, Jere L. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index. p. 382.
^ C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, (Columbia University Press, 1996), 62.
^ C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, (Columbia University Press, 1996), 191.
^ Marshall Cavendish (2006). World and Its Peoples. p. 1213.
^ Thackston 1996
^ Findley 2005
^ Saunders 1970, p.177
^ "The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Tamarind Empire)". Ucalgary.ca. Archived from the original on 2009-08-16. Retrieved 2011-07-06. ; "The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire)". Ucalgary.ca. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-07-06.
^ Wudai Shi, ch. 75. Considering the father was originally called Nieliji without a surname, the fact that his patrilineal ancestors all had Chinese names here indicates that these names were probably all created posthumously after Shi Jingtang became a "Chinese" emperor. Shi Jingtang actually claimed to be a descendant of Chinese historical figures Shi Que and Shi Fen, and insisted that his ancestors went westwards towards non-Han Chinese area during the political chaos at the end of the Han Dynasty in the early 3rd century.
^ ^a ^b According to Old History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 99, and New History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 10. Liu Zhiyuan was of Shatuo origin. According to Wudai Huiyao, vol. 1 Liu Zhiyuan's great-great-grandfather Liu Tuan (劉湍) (titled as Emperor Mingyuan posthumously, granted the temple name of Wenzu) descended from Liu Bing (劉昞), Prince of Huaiyang, a son of Emperor Ming of Han
^ Lewis, Bernard. "Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire", p29. Published 1963, University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1060-0.
^ ^a ^b M.A. Amir-Moezzi, "Shahrbanu", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK Archived 2007-03-11 at the Wayback Machine.): "... here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints ..."
^ Muhammad Qāsim Hindū Šāh Astarābādī Firištah, "History Of The Mohamedan Power In India", Chapter I, "Sultān Mahmūd-e Ghaznavī", p.27: "... "Sabuktegin, the son of Jūkān, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Fīrūz, the son of Yezdijird, king of Persia. ..."
^ Jonathan Dewald, "Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World", Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004, p. 24
^ K.A. Luther, "Alp Arslān" in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK): "... Saljuq activity must always be viewed both in terms of the wishes of the sultan and his Khorasanian, Sunni advisors, especially Nezām-al-molk ..."
^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (LINK): "... Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship ..."
^ O.Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK Archived 2012-01-22 at the Wayback Machine.)
^ 1.Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire, 29; "Even when the land of Rum became politically independent, it remained a colonial extension of Turco-Persian culture which had its centers in Iran and Central Asia","The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian...".
^ M. Ismail Marcinkowski, Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey, with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth, member of the British Academy, Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971-77-488-7.
^ C.E. Bosworth and R. Bulliet, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual , Columbia University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-231-10714-5, p. 275.
^ They were always counted as a part of the Mongols within the Mongol Empire, however, scholars traditionally believe that they were the Turkic people, see also: Christopher P. Atwood - Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire ISBN 9780816046713, Facts on File, Inc. 2004.
^ Soucek, Svat (2000). A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0521657044. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
^ René Grousset (1953). The Rise and Splendour of the Chinese Empire. University of California Press. p. 244.
^ Lev Nikolaevich Gumilev (1987). Searches for an Imaginary Kingdom: The Legend of the Kingdom of Prester John. Cambridge University Press. p. 94.
^ Kenneth Pletcher (2010). The History of China. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 181.
^ Compiled after Y. Bregel, ed. (1999), Firdaws al-iqbal; History of Khorezm. Leiden: Brill.
^ "Panayotis D. Cangelaris - The Western Thrace Autonomous Government "Muhtariyet" Issue (1913) Philatelic Exhibit". Cangelaris.com. Retrieved 2016-09-25.
^ ^a ^b [2] KIBRIS'TA ESKİ YÖNETİMLER