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Concerns about lobotomy steadily grew. Soviet psychiatrist Vasily Gilyarovsky criticized lobotomy and the mechanistic brain localization assumption used to carry out lobotomy: "It is assumed that the transection of white substance of the frontal lobes impairs their connection with the thalamus and eliminates the possibility to receive from it stimuli which lead to irritation and on the whole derange mental functions. This explanation is mechanistic and goes back to the narrow localizationism characteristic of psychiatrists of America, from where leucotomy was imported to us."{{sfn|Gilyarovsky|1950|ps=}} The USSR officially banned the procedure in 1950.{{sfn|USSR Ministry of Health|1951|pp=17–18|ps=}} Doctors in the Soviet Union concluded that the procedure was "contrary to the principles of humanity" and "'through lobotomy' an insane person is changed into an idiot."{{sfn|Diefenbach|Diefenbach|Baumeister|West|1999|pp=60–69|ps=}} By the 1970s, numerous countries had banned the procedure as had several US states.{{sfn|Wood|Wood|2008|p=153}} Other forms of psychosurgery continued to be legally practiced in controlled and regulated US centers and in Belgium, Finland, India, Sweden, the UK, and the Netherlands.
Concerns about lobotomy steadily grew. Soviet psychiatrist Vasily Gilyarovsky criticized lobotomy and the mechanistic brain localization assumption used to carry out lobotomy: "It is assumed that the transection of white substance of the frontal lobes impairs their connection with the thalamus and eliminates the possibility to receive from it stimuli which lead to irritation and on the whole derange mental functions. This explanation is mechanistic and goes back to the narrow localizationism characteristic of psychiatrists of America, from where leucotomy was imported to us."{{sfn|Gilyarovsky|1950|ps=}} The USSR officially banned the procedure in 1950.{{sfn|USSR Ministry of Health|1951|pp=17–18|ps=}} Doctors in the Soviet Union concluded that the procedure was "contrary to the principles of humanity" and "'through lobotomy' an insane person is changed into an idiot."{{sfn|Diefenbach|Diefenbach|Baumeister|West|1999|pp=60–69|ps=}} By the 1970s, numerous countries had banned the procedure as had several US states.{{sfn|Wood|Wood|2008|p=153}} Other forms of psychosurgery continued to be legally practiced in controlled and regulated US centers and in Belgium, Finland, India, Sweden, the UK, and the Netherlands.


In 1977 the US Congress created the National Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research to investigate allegations that psychosurgery—including lobotomy techniques—were used to control minorities and restrain individual rights. It also investigated the after-effects of surgery. The committee concluded that some extremely limited and properly performed psychosurgery could have positive effects.{reference?}
In 1977 the US Congress created the National Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research to investigate allegations that psychosurgery—including lobotomy techniques—were used to control minorities and restrain individual rights. It also investigated the after-effects of surgery. The committee concluded that some extremely limited and properly performed psychosurgery could have positive effects.{{citation needed}}


There have been calls for the [[Nobel Foundation]] to rescind the prize it awarded to Moniz for developing the lobotomy, a decision that has been called an astounding error of judgment at the time and one that psychiatry might still need to learn from, but the Foundation declined to take action and has continued to host an article defending the results of the procedure.{{sfn|Sutherland|2004|ps=}}
There have been calls for the [[Nobel Foundation]] to rescind the prize it awarded to Moniz for developing the lobotomy, a decision that has been called an astounding error of judgment at the time and one that psychiatry might still need to learn from, but the Foundation declined to take action and has continued to host an article defending the results of the procedure.{{sfn|Sutherland|2004|ps=}}


Tennessee William criticised lobotomy in his play Suddenly Last Summer because it was sometimes inflicted on gays - to render them "morally sane".{{sfn|Sutherland|2004|ps=}}
Tennessee William criticised lobotomy in his play Suddenly Last Summer because it was sometimes inflicted on gays—to render them "morally sane".{{sfn|Sutherland|2004|ps=}}


==Notable cases==
==Notable cases==

Revision as of 04:18, 28 January 2013

Not to be confused with Lobectomy.
Main article: Psychosurgery

Lobotomy (Template:Lang-el: "lobe (of brain)"; τομή – tomē: "cut/slice") is a neurosurgical procedure, a form of psychosurgery, also known as a leukotomy or leucotomy (from the Greek λευκός – leukos: "clear/white" and tome). It consists of cutting the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain. While the procedure, initially termed a leucotomy, has been controversial since its inception in 1935, it was a mainstream procedure for more than two decades, prescribed for psychiatric (and occasionally other) conditions—this despite general recognition of frequent and serious side-effects.

Half of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine of 1949 was awarded to António Egas Moniz for the "discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses",[n 2] although the awarding of the prize is subject to controversy.[3] The usage of the procedure increased dramatically in some countries from the early 1940s and into the 1950s; by 1951, almost 20,000 lobotomies had been performed in the United States. Following the introduction of antipsychotic medications in the mid-1950s, however, lobotomy underwent a gradual but definite decline.

Context

The lobotomy was one of a series of radical and invasive physical therapies developed in Europe in the first half of the 20th century. These experimental medical procedures signaled a break with a psychiatric culture of therapeutic nihilism that had prevailed since the late nineteenth-century.[4][n 3] The new "heroic" physical therapies introduced in the first half of the 20th century, including malarial therapy for general paresis of the insane (1917),[6] deep sleep therapy (1920), insulin shock therapy (1933), cardiazol shock therapy (1934), and electroconvulsive therapy (1938),[7] helped to imbue the then therapeutically moribund and demoralised psychiatric profession with a renewed sense of optimism in the curability of insanity and the potency of their craft.[citation needed]

Joel Braslow argues that from malarial therapy onward to lobotomy, physical psychiatric therapies "spiral closer and closer to the interior of the brain" with this organ increasingly taking "center stage as a source of disease and site of cure."[8] For Roy Porter, these often violent and invasive psychiatric interventions are indicative of both the well-intentioned desire of psychiatrists to find some medical means of alleviating the suffering of the thousands of patients in psychiatric hospitals and also the relative lack of social power of those same patients to resist the increasingly radical and even reckless interventions of asylum doctors.[9]


Pioneers

Precursors

Gottlieb Burckhardt (1836-1907).

Prior to the 1930s, individual doctors had infrequently experimented with novel surgical operations on the brains of those deemed insane. Most notably in 1888, the Swiss psychiatrist, Gottlieb Burckhardt, initiated what is commonly considered the first systematic attempt at modern human psychosurgery.[10] He operated on six chronic patients under his care at the Swiss Préfargier Asylum, removing sections of their cerebral cortex. Burckhardt's decision to operate was informed by three pervasive views on the nature of mental illness and its relationship to the brain. First, the belief that mental illness was organic in nature and reflected an underlying brain pathology; next, that the nervous system was organized according to an associationist model comprising an input or afferent system, a connecting system where information processing took place, and an output or efferent system; and, finally, a modular conception of the brain whereby discrete mental faculties were connected to specific regions of the brain.[11] Burckhardt's hypothesis was that by deliberately creating lesions in regions of the brain identified with certain mental faculties a transformation in behaviour might ensue.[11]

The results produced by the procedure were mixed at best. Two patients experienced no change; two patients became quieter; one patient experienced epileptic convulsions and died a few days after the operation; and one patient was thought to have improved but subsequently committed suicide. He presented the results at the Berlin Medical Congress and published a report, but the response from his medical peers was hostile and he did no further operations.[12]

Early in the 20th century Russian neurologist Vladimir Bekhterev and Estonian neurosurgeon Ludvig Puusepp operated on three patients with mental illness, with discouraging results.[12]

The development of leucotomy

Egas Moniz

The development of the leucotomy procedure was the work of the Portuguese physician and neurologist António Egas Moniz, who was highly acclaimed for his work on cerebral angiography (radiographical visual of the blood vessels in the brain) in 1927.[13][n 4] Despite having no clinical psychiatric experience and, indeed, little interest in psychiatry, in 1935 at the Hospital Santa Marta in Lisbon, he devised the surgery called prefrontal leucotomy which was carried out under his direction by the neurosurgeon Pedro Almeida Lima. He was also responsible for coining the term psychosurgery.[15] The procedure involved drilling holes in the patient's head and destroying tissue in the frontal lobes by injecting alcohol. He later changed technique, using a surgical instrument called a leucotome that cut brain tissue by rotating a retractable wire loop.[16] Between November 1935 and February 1936 Moniz and Lima operated on twenty patients, publishing their findings in the same year.[17] Their own assessment was that 35% of the patients improved greatly, 35% improved moderately and that in the remaining 30% there was no change. The patients were aged between 27 and 62 years of age, twelve were female and eight were male. Nine of the patients were diagnosed as suffering from depression, six from schizophrenia, two from panic disorder, and one each from mania, catatonia and manic-depression with the most prominent symptoms being anxiety and agitation. The duration of the illness prior to the procedure varied from as little as four weeks to as much as 22 years, although all but four had been ill for at least one year. The post-operative follow-up assessment took place anywhere from one to ten weeks following surgery. The observed complications were less severe than in Burckhardt's sample as there were no deaths or epileptic convulsions and the most cited complication was fever.[18]

The theoretical underpinnings of Moniz's avant garde psychosurgery were largely commensurate with the nineteenth century ones that formed the basis of Burckhardt's theories before him. Although in his later writings he referenced both the neuron theory of Ramón y Cajal and the conditioned reflex of Ivan Pavlov, in essence he simply interpreted this new neurological research in terms of the old psychological theory of associationism.[19] He differed significantly from Burckhardt in that he did not think there was any physical anatomical pathology in the brains of the mentally ill, but rather that their neural pathways were caught in fixed and destructive circuits.[20][n 5] As Moniz wrote in 1936:

[The] mental troubles must have [...] a relation with the formation of cellulo-connective groupings, which become more or less fixed. The cellular bodies may remain altogether normal, their cylinders will not have any anatomical alterations; but their multiple liaisons, very variable in normal people, may have arrangements more or less fixed, which will have a relation with persistent ideas and deliria in certain morbid psychic states.[22]

Later, Burckhardt was condemned for his methodology while Moniz's more favorable results earned him acceptance within the psychology community.[23]

Brain animation: left frontal lobe highlighted in red. Moniz targeted the frontal lobes in the leucotomy procedure which he first conceived in 1933.

The removal of these aberrant and fixed pathological brain circuits, therefore, might lead to some improvement in mental symptoms. Moniz believed that the brain would functionally adapt to such injury.[24] A significant advantage of this approach was that, unlike the position adopted by Burckhardt, it was unfalsifiable according to the knowledge and technology of the time as the absence of a known correlation between physical brain pathology and mental illness could not disprove his thesis.[25]>

Traditionally, the question of why Moniz targeted the frontal lobes in particular has been answered by reference to a presentation by John Fulton and Carlyle Jacobsen at the Second International Congress of Neurology held in London in 1935. Fulton and Carlyle presented two chimpanzees who had undergone frontal lobectomies. The operation had had a pacifying effect on the two primates, who had previously suffered from behavioral disorders. It has been alleged that this provided the impetus and inspiration for Moniz to try the same technique on psychiatric patients.[14][n 6] However, as Berrios points out, this conflicts with the fact that Moniz had told his colleague Lima in confidence as early as 1933 of his psychosurgical idea. Nor did he mention Fulton's and Carlyle's presentation as an influence when writing about the procedure in 1936.[27] Indeed, as Kotowicz notes, his attention was drawn more to the case presented by Richard Brickner, at the same conference, of a patient who had had his frontal lobes ablated and, while experiencing a flattening of affect, had suffered no apparent decrease in intellect. Brickner had published on this case in 1932.[23]

Moniz was given the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1949 for this work.[28]

Walter Freeman

Main article: Walter Jackson Freeman II
Site of borehole for the standard pre-frontal lobotomy/leucotomy operation as developed by Freeman and Watts

The American neurologist and psychiatrist Walter Freeman, who had also attended the London Congress of Neurology in 1935, was intrigued by Moniz's work, and with the help of his close friend, neurosurgeon James W. Watts, he performed the first prefrontal leucotomy in the United States in 1936 at the hospital of George Washington University in Washington.[29] Freeman and Watts gradually refined the surgical technique and created the Freeman-Watts procedure (the "precision method", the standard prefrontal lobotomy).

The Freeman-Watts prefrontal lobotomy still required drilling holes in the scalp, so surgery had to be performed in an operating room by trained neurosurgeons. Walter Freeman believed this surgery would be unavailable to those he saw as needing it most: patients in state mental hospitals that had no operating rooms, surgeons, or anesthesia and limited budgets. Freeman wanted to simplify the procedure so that it could be carried out by psychiatrists in mental asylums, which housed roughly 600,000 American inpatients at the time.

Inspired by the work of Italian psychiatrist Amarro Fiamberti, Freeman at some point conceived of approaching the frontal lobes through the eye sockets instead of through drilled holes in the skull. In 1945 he took an icepick[n 7] from his own kitchen and began testing the idea on grapefruit[n 8] and cadavers. This new "transorbital" lobotomy involved lifting the upper eyelid and placing the point of a thin surgical instrument (often called an orbitoclast or leucotome, although quite different from the wire loop leucotome described above) under the eyelid and against the top of the eyesocket. A mallet was used to drive the orbitoclast through the thin layer of bone and into the brain along the plane of the bridge of the nose, around fifteen degrees toward the interhemispherical fissure. The orbitoclast was malleted five centimeters (2 in) into the frontal lobes, and then pivoted forty degrees at the orbit perforation so the tip cut toward the opposite side of the head (toward the nose). The instrument was returned to the neutral position and sent a further two centimeters (4⁄5 in) into the brain, before being pivoted around twenty-eight degrees each side, to cut outwards and again inwards. (In a more radical variation at the end of the last cut described, the butt of the orbitoclast was forced upwards so the tool cut vertically down the side of the cortex of the interhemispherical fissure; the "Deep frontal cut".) All cuts were designed to transect the white fibrous matter connecting the cortical tissue of the prefrontal cortex to the thalamus. The leucotome was then withdrawn and the procedure repeated on the other side.

Freeman performed the first transorbital lobotomy on a live patient in 1946. Its simplicity suggested the possibility of carrying it out in mental hospitals lacking the surgical facilities required for the earlier, more complex procedure (Freeman suggesting that, where conventional anesthesia was unavailable, electroconvulsive therapy be used to render the patient unconscious).[31] In 1947, the Freeman and Watts partnership ended, as the latter was disgusted by Freeman's modification of the lobotomy from a surgical operation into a simple "office" procedure. Between 1940 and 1944, 684 lobotomies were performed in the United States. However, because of the fervent promotion of the technique by Freeman and Watts, those numbers increased sharply towards the end of the decade. In 1949, the peak year for lobotomies in the US, 5,074 procedures were undertaken, and by 1951 over 18,608 individuals had been lobotomized in the US.[32]

Prevalence

In the United States approximately 40,000 people were lobotomized. In Great Britain 17,000 lobotomies were performed, and the three Nordic countries of Finland, Norway, and Sweden had a combined figure of approximately 9,300 lobotomies.[33] Scandinavian hospitals lobotomized 2.5 times as many people per capita as hospitals in the US.[34] Sweden lobotomized at least 4,500 people between 1944 and 1966, mainly women. This figure includes young children.[35] In Norway there were 2,500 known lobotomies.[36] In Denmark there were 4,500 known lobotomies, mainly young women, as well as mentally retarded children.[37]

By the late 1970s the practice of lobotomy had generally ceased, but some countries continued to use other forms of psychosurgery. In 2001 there were, for example, seventy operations in Belgium, about fifteen in the UK and about fifteen a year at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, while France had carried out operations on about five patients a year in the early 1980s.[38]

Side effects

Lobotomy patients have difficulty putting themselves in the position of others because of decreased cognition and detachment from society.[39]

Criticism

As early as 1944 an author in the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease remarked: "The history of prefrontal lobotomy has been brief and stormy. Its course has been dotted with both violent opposition and with slavish, unquestioning acceptance." Beginning in 1947 Swedish psychiatrist Snorre Wohlfahrt evaluated early trials, reporting that it is "distinctly hazardous to leucotomize schizophrenics" and lobotomy to be "still too imperfect to enable us, with its aid, to venture on a general offensive against chronic cases of mental disorder" and stating that "Psychosurgery has as yet failed to discover its precise indications and contraindications and the methods must unfortunately still be regarded as rather crude and hazardous in many respects."[40] In 1948 Norbert Wiener, the author of Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, said: "[P]refrontal lobotomy... has recently been having a certain vogue, probably not unconnected with the fact that it makes the custodial care of many patients easier. Let me remark in passing that killing them makes their custodial care still easier."[41]

Concerns about lobotomy steadily grew. Soviet psychiatrist Vasily Gilyarovsky criticized lobotomy and the mechanistic brain localization assumption used to carry out lobotomy: "It is assumed that the transection of white substance of the frontal lobes impairs their connection with the thalamus and eliminates the possibility to receive from it stimuli which lead to irritation and on the whole derange mental functions. This explanation is mechanistic and goes back to the narrow localizationism characteristic of psychiatrists of America, from where leucotomy was imported to us."[42] The USSR officially banned the procedure in 1950.[43] Doctors in the Soviet Union concluded that the procedure was "contrary to the principles of humanity" and "'through lobotomy' an insane person is changed into an idiot."[44] By the 1970s, numerous countries had banned the procedure as had several US states.[45] Other forms of psychosurgery continued to be legally practiced in controlled and regulated US centers and in Belgium, Finland, India, Sweden, the UK, and the Netherlands.

In 1977 the US Congress created the National Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research to investigate allegations that psychosurgery—including lobotomy techniques—were used to control minorities and restrain individual rights. It also investigated the after-effects of surgery. The committee concluded that some extremely limited and properly performed psychosurgery could have positive effects.[citation needed]

There have been calls for the Nobel Foundation to rescind the prize it awarded to Moniz for developing the lobotomy, a decision that has been called an astounding error of judgment at the time and one that psychiatry might still need to learn from, but the Foundation declined to take action and has continued to host an article defending the results of the procedure.[3]

Tennessee William criticised lobotomy in his play Suddenly Last Summer because it was sometimes inflicted on gays—to render them "morally sane".[3]

Notable cases

  • Rosemary Kennedy, sister of President John F. Kennedy, underwent a lobotomy in 1941 at age 23 which left her permanently incapacitated.[46]
  • Howard Dully wrote a memoir of his late-life discovery that he had been lobotomized in 1960 at age 12.[47]
  • New Zealand author and poet Janet Frame received a literary award in 1951 the day before a scheduled lobotomy was to take place, and it was never performed.[48]
  • Josef Hassid, a famous Polish violonist and composer, was diagnosed with schizophrenia and died at the age of 26 following a lobotomy.[49]
  • Swedish modernist painter Sigrid Hjertén died following a lobotomy in 1948.[citation needed]
  • American Playwright Tennessee Williams' older sister Rose received a lobotomy which left her incapacitated for life; the episode is said to have inspired characters and motifs in certain of his works.[50]
  • It is often said that when an iron rod was accidentally driven through the head of Phineas Gage in 1848, this constituted an "accidental lobotomy", or that this event somehow inspired the development of surgical lobotomy a century later. According to the only book-length study of Gage, careful inquiry turns up no such link.[51]

Literary and cinematic portrayals

Lobotomies have been featured in several literary and cinematic presentations that both reflected society's attitude towards the procedure and, at times, changed it. Writers and film-makers have played a pivotal role in forming a negative public sentiment towards the procedure.[3]

  • Robert Penn Warren's 1946 novel All the King's Men describes a lobotomy as making "a Comanche brave look like a tyro with a scalping knife," and portrays the surgeon as a repressed man who cannot change others with love so instead resorts to "high-grade carpentry work".[52]
  • In Tennessee Williams's Suddenly, Last Summer (1958) a wealthy matriarch offers the local mental hospital a substantial donation—if the hospital will give her niece a lobotomy, which she hopes will stop the niece's shocking revelations about the matriarch's son.[53] Warned that a lobotomy might not stop her niece's "babbling," she responds, "That may be, maybe not, but after the operation who would believe her, Doctor?"[54]
  • In Ken Kesey's 1962 novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and its 1975 movie adaptation, lobotomy is described as "frontal-lobe castration", a form of punishment and control after which, "There's nothin' in the face. Just like one of those store dummies." In one patient, "You can see by his eyes how they burned him out over there; his eyes are all smoked up and gray and deserted inside."[52]
  • In Sylvia Plath's 1963 novel The Bell Jar, the protagonist reacts with horror to the "perpetual marble calm" of a lobotomized young woman.[52]
  • Elliott Baker's 1964 novel and 1966 film version, A Fine Madness, portrays the dehumanizing lobotomy of a womanizing, quarrelsome poet who afterwards is just as aggressive as ever. The surgeon is depicted as an inhumane crackpot.[55]
  • The 1982 film Frances depicts actress Frances Farmer (the subject of the film) undergoing transorbital lobotomy (though the idea[56] that a lobotomy was performed on Farmer, and that Freeman performed it, has been criticized as having little or no foundation).[57]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Walter Freeman had originally used ice picks for his modified form of the leucotomy operation that he termed transorbital lobotomy. However, because the ice picks would occasionally break inside the patient's head and have to be retrieved, he had the very durable orbitoclast specially commissioned in 1948.[1]
  2. ^ Walter Rudolf Hess was awarded a share of the prize for his work on the function of the midbrain and was not involved with leucotomy.[2]
  3. ^ Ugo Cerletti, the Italian psychiatrist and joint inventor with Lucio Bini of electroconvulsive therapy, described psychiatry during the interwar period as a "funereal science".[5]
  4. ^ Prior to his exploration of psychosurgery, Moniz had twice been nominated for, and twice failed to win, a Nobel Prize for this work. Edward Shorter attributes his development of the leucotomy procedure to his desire to finally capture that noble accolade.[14]
  5. ^ Moniz wrote in 1948: 'sufferers from melancholia, for instance, are distressed by fixed and obsessive ideas ... and live in a permanent state of anxiety caused by a fixed idea which predominates over all their lives ... in contrast to automatic actions, these morbid ideas are deeply rooted in the synaptic complex which regulates the functioning of consciousness, stimulating it and keeping it in constant activity ... all these considerations led me to the following conclusion: it is necessary to alter these synaptic adjustments and change the paths chosen by the impulses in their constant passage so as to modify the corresponding ideas and force thoughts along different paths...'[21]
  6. ^ This conference also held "a remarkable symposium...on the functions of the frontal lobes".[26]
  7. ^ Frank Freeman, Walter Freeman's son, stated in an interview with Howard Dully that: "He had several ice-picks that just cluttered the back of the kitchen drawer. The first ice-pick came right out of our drawer. A humble ice-pick to go right into the frontal lobes. It was, from a cosmetic standpoint, diabolical. Just observing this thing was horrible, gruesome." When Dully asked Frank Freeman, then a 79-year-old security guard, whether he was proud of his father, he replied: "Oh yes, yes, yeah. He was terrific. He was really quite a remarkable pioneer lobotomist. I wish he could have gotten further."[30]
  8. ^ Rodney Dully, whose son Howard Dully had had a transorbital lobotomy performed on him by Walter Freeman when he was twelve years old , stated in an interview with his son that: "I only met him [Freeman] I think the one time. He described how accurate it [transorbital lobotomy] was and that he had practised the cutting on, literally, a carload of grapefruit, getting the right move and the right turn. That's what he told me."[30]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Acharya 2004, p. 40
  2. ^ Nobelprize.org 2013.
  3. ^ a b c d Sutherland 2004
  4. ^ Swayze 1995, pp. 505–515; Hoenig 1995, p. 337; Meduna 1985, p. 53
  5. ^ Shorter 1997, p. 218.
  6. ^ Brown 2000, pp. 371–382.
  7. ^ Shorter 1997, pp. 190–225; Jansson 1998
  8. ^ Braslow 1997, p. 3.
  9. ^ Porter 1999, p. 520.
  10. ^ Gross & Schäfer 2011, p. 1; Heller et al. 2006, p. 727; Joanette et al. 1993, pp. 572, 575; Kotowicz 2008, p. 486; Manjila et al. 2008, p. 1; Noll 2007, p. 326; Reevy, Ozer & Ito 2010, p. 485; Steck 2010, pp. 85–89; Stone 2001, pp. 79–92; Suchy 2011, p. 37; Mareke & Fangerau 2010, p. 138; Ford & Henderson 2006, p. 219; Green et al. 2010, p. 208; Sakas et al. 2007, p. 366; Whitaker, Stemmer & Joanette 1996, p. 276
  11. ^ a b Berrios 1997, p. 68.
  12. ^ a b Kotowicz 2005, pp. 77–101
  13. ^ Doby 1992, p. 2
  14. ^ a b Shorter 1997, p. 226.
  15. ^ Kotowicz 2005, pp. 78, 80, 83
  16. ^ Jansson 1998; for Moniz's account of the procedure see, Moniz 1994, pp. 237–239
  17. ^ Kotowicz 2005, p. 81
  18. ^ Berrios 1997, pp. 74–76
  19. ^ Berrios 1997, p. 72
  20. ^ Kotowicz 2005, p. 99.
  21. ^ Quoted in Berrios 1997, p. 74
  22. ^ Quoted in Kotowicz 2005, p. 88
  23. ^ a b Kotowicz 2005, p. 84
  24. ^ Berrios 1997, p. 74
  25. ^ Kotowicz 2005, p. 89
  26. ^ Freeman & Watts 1944, p. 532.
  27. ^ Berrios 1997, pp. 72–73
  28. ^ Nobelprize.org 2013; Kotowicz 2005, p. 78 n. 2
  29. ^ Shorter 1997, p. 227
  30. ^ a b Dully 2005 Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTEDully2005" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  31. ^ El-Hai 2005
  32. ^ Shorter 1997, pp. 227–228
  33. ^ Tranøy & Blomberg 2005, p. 107
  34. ^ Tranøy 1996, pp. 1–20
  35. ^ Ogren & Sandlund 2005, pp. 353–67
  36. ^ Goldbeck-Wood 1996, pp. 708–709
  37. ^ Kragh 2010, pp. 341–364
  38. ^ CCNE 2002.
  39. ^ Shutts 1982
  40. ^ Ogren & Sandlund 2005.
  41. ^ Wiener 1948, p. 148.
  42. ^ Gilyarovsky 1950
  43. ^ USSR Ministry of Health 1951, pp. 17–18
  44. ^ Diefenbach et al. 1999, pp. 60–69
  45. ^ Wood & Wood 2008, p. 153.
  46. ^ Feldman 2001, p. 271
  47. ^ Day 2008
  48. ^ Martin 2004
  49. ^ Prior 2008
  50. ^ Kolin 1998, pp. 50–51
  51. ^ Macmillan 2012; Macmillan 2000, p. 250
  52. ^ a b c Grenander 1978, pp. 42–44
  53. ^ Bigsby 1985, p. 100
  54. ^ Williams 1998, p. 15
  55. ^ Gabbard & Gabbard 1999, pp. =119–120
  56. ^ Arnold 1982.
  57. ^ Bragg 2005, pp. 72–75; El-Hai 2005, pp. 241–242

Sources

Print Sources

  • Acharya, Hernish J. (2004), "The Rise and Fall of Frontal Leucotomy", in W.A. Whitelaw (ed.) (ed.), The Proceedings of the 13th Annual History of Medicine Days (PDF), Calgary, pp. 32–41 {{citation}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Arnold, William (1982). Shadowland. Berkley Books. ISBN 0-425-05481-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Berrios, German E. (1997). "The Origins of Psychosurgery: Shaw, Burckhardt and Moniz". History of Psychiatry. 8 (1): 61–81. doi:10.1177/0957154X9700802905. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Bigsby, C.W.E. (1985). A Critical Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Drama: Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27717-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Bragg, Lynn (2005). Myths and Mysteries of Washington (1st ed.). TwoDot. ISBN 978-0-7627-3427-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Braslow, Joel T. (1997), Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century, University of California, ISBN 0-520-20547-2 {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Brown, Edward M. (2000). "Why Wagner-Jauregg won the Nobel Prize for discovering malaria therapy for General Paresis of the Insane". History of Psychiatry. 11 (4): 371–382. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Day, Elizabeth (12 January 2008). "He was bad, so they put an ice pick in his brain..." The Guardian. Retrieved 31 March 2010. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Diefenbach, Gretchen; Diefenbach, Donald; Baumeister, Alan; West, Mark (1999). "Portrayal of lobotomy in the popular press: 1935-1960". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 8 (1): 60–69. doi:10.1076/jhin.8.1.60.1766. PMID 11624138. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first4= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last4= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Doby, T (1992). "Cerebral Angiography and Egas Moniz" (PDF). American Journal of Roentgenology. 359 (2): 364. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • El-Hai, Jack (2005), The Lobotomist: A Maverick Medical Genius and His Tragic Quest to Rid the World of Mental Illness, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-23292-0 {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Feldman, Burton (2001). The Nobel prize: a history of genius, controversy, and prestige. Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1-55970-592-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Ford, Paul J.; Henderson, Jaimie M. (2006). "Functional neurosurgical intervention: neuroethics in the operating rooms". In Judy Illes (ed.) (ed.). Neuroethics: defining the issues in theory, practice, and policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856721-9. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Freeman, Walter; Watts, James W. (1944). "Psychosurgery: An Evaluation of Two Hundred Cases over Seven Years". Journal of Mental Science. 90 (379): 532–537. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Gabbard, Glen O.; Gabbard, Krin (1999). Psychiatry and the Cinema (2nd ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-0-88048-964-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Gilyarovsky, Vasily [Василий Гиляровский] (14 September 1950). "Pavlov's teaching is the basis of psychiatry". Health Worker [Медицинский работник] (in Russian) (37). {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Goldbeck-Wood, Sandra (21 September 1996). "Norway compensates lobotomy victims". British Medical Journal. 313 (7059): 708–709. doi:10.1136/bmj.313.7059.708a. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Green, Alexander; Astradsson, A.; Stacey, R.J.; Aziz, T.Z. (2010). "Functional and epilepsy neurosurgery". In Reuben Johnson & Alexander Green (eds) (ed.). Landmark Papers in Neurosurgery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959125-1. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first4= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last4= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Grenander, M.E. (1978). "Of Graver Import Than History: Psychiatry In Fiction" (PDF). Journal of Libertarian Studies. 2 (1): 29–44. PMID 11614766. Retrieved 22 January 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Gross, Dominik; Schäfer, Gereon (2011). "Egas Moniz (1874–1955) and the "invention" of modern psychosurgery: a historical and ethical reanalysis under special consideration of Portuguese original sources". Neurosurgical Focus. 30 (2): 8. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Heller, A. C.; Amar, A. P.; Liu, C.Y.; Apuzzo, M.L.J. (2006). "Surgery of the mind and mood: A mosaic of issues in time and evolution". Neurosurgery. 59 (4): 727. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first4= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last4= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Hoenig, J. (1995), "Schizophrenia", in German E. Berrios & Roy Porter (eds) (ed.), A History of Clinical Psychiatry: The Origin and History of Psychiatric Disorders, Athlone, ISBN 0-485-24011-4 {{citation}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Joanette, Yves; Stemmer, Brigitte; Assal, Gil; Whitaker, Harry (1993). "From theory to practice: the unconventional contribution of Gottlieb Burckhardt to psychosurgery". Brain and Language. 45 (4): 572–587. doi:10.1006/brln.1993.1061. PMID 8118674. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first4= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last4= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Kolin, Philip (Spring 1998), "Something Cloudy, Something Clear: Tennessee Williams's Postmodern Memory Play", Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism, 12: 35–55 {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |no= ignored (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Kotowicz, Zbigniew (2005). "Gottlieb Burckhardt and Egas Moniz - Two Beginnings of Psychosugery" (PDF). Gesnerus. 62 (1/2): 77–101. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Kotowicz, Zbigniew (December 2008). "Psychosurgery in Italy, 1936-39". History of Psychiatry. 19 (4): 476–489. doi:10.1177/0957154X07087345. ISSN 0957-154X. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Kragh, J.V. (2010). "Shock Therapy in Danish Psychiatry". Medical History. 54 (3): 341–64. PMC 2889500. PMID 20592884. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Manjila, S.; Rengachary, S.; Xavier, A.R.; Parker, B.; Guthikonda, M. (2008). "Modern psychosurgery before Egas Moniz: a tribute to Gottlieb Burckhardt". Neurosurgery Focus. 25 (1): 1–4. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first4= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first5= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last4= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last5= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Mareke, Arends; Fangerau, Heiner (2010). "Deep brain stimulation in psychiatric disorders". In Heiner Fangerau, Fegert Jörg, & Arends Mareke (eds) (ed.). Implanted Minds: The Neuroethics of Intracerebral Stem Cell Transplantation and Deep Brain Stimulation. Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8376-1433-6. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Macmillan, M. (2000). An Odd Kind of Fame: Stories of Phineas Gage. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-13363-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Martin, Douglas (30 January 2004). "Janet Frame, 79, Writer Who Explored Madness". New York Times. Retrieved 17 November 2007. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Meduna, L.J. (1985). "Autobiography of L.J. Meduna". Convulsive Therapy. 1 (1): 43–57. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Moniz, Egas (1994) [1937], American Journal of Psychiatry 1844–1944, American Psychiatric Publishing, p. 237–239, ISBN 9780890422755 {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Text "chapter Prefrontal Leucotomy in the Treatment of Mental Disorders" ignored (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Noll, Richard (January 2007). The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-6405-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Ogren, K.; Sandlund, M. (2005). "Psychosurgery in Sweden 1944–1964". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 14 (4): 353–67. doi:10.1080/096470490897692. PMID 16338693. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Prior, Alex (6 February 2008). "Music's boy wonder: Composer, conductor, singer... and he's only fifteen". The Independent. Retrieved 11 July 2010. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Porter, Roy (1999), The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present, Fontana Press, ISBN 0-00-637454-9 {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Reevy, Gretchen; Ozer, Yvette Malamud; Ito, Yuri (2010). Encyclopedia of Emotion. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-34576-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last3= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Sakas, Damianos E.; Panourias, L.G.; Singounas, E.; Simpson, B.A. (2007). "Neurosurgery for psychiatric disorders: from the excision of brain tissue to the chronic electrical stimulation of neural networks". In Damianos E. Sakas & B.A. Simpson (eds) (ed.). Operative Neuromodulation. Functional Neuroprosthetic Surgery: An Introduction. Springer. pp. 365–374. ISBN 978-3-211-33078-4. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first4= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last4= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Shorter, Edward (1997), A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-24531-3 {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Shutts, David (1982). Lobotomy: resort to the knife. Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 978-0-442-20252-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Steck, A.J. (2010). "Milestones in the development of neurology and psychiatry in Europe". Schweizer Archiv fur Neurologie und Psychiatrie. 161 (3): 85–9. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Stone, James L. (2001). "Gottlieb Burckhardt – The Pioneer of Psychosurgery". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 10 (1): 79–92. doi:10.1076/jhin.10.1.79.5634. PMID 11446267. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Suchy, Yana (2011). Clinical Neuropsychology of Emotion. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60918-072-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Swayze, V.W. (1995). "Frontal leukotomy and related psychosurgical procedures in the era before antipsychotics (1935–1954): a historical overview". American Journal of Psychiatry. 152 (4): 505–515. PMID 7900928. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Tranøy, Joar (1996). "Lobotomy in Scandinavian psychiatry". The Journal of Mind and Behavior. 17 (1): 1–20. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Tranøy, Joar; Blomberg, Wenche (2005). "Lobotomy in Norwegian Psychiatry" (PDF). History of Psychiatry. 16 (1): 107–110. doi:10.1177/0957154X05052224. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2007. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • USSR Ministry of Health (1951). "Order 1003 (9 December 1950)". Neuropathology and Psychiatry [Невропатология и психиатрия] (in Russian). 20 (1): 17–18. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Whitaker, H.A.; Stemmer, B.; Joanette, Y. (1996). "A psychosurgical chapter in the history of cerebral localization: the six cases of Gottlieb Burkhardt". In Christopher Code, C.-W. Wallesch, Y. Joanette & A. Roch (eds) (ed.). Classic Cases in Neuropsychology. Hove: Psychology Press. pp. 275–304. ISBN 978-0-86377-395-2. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first3= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last3= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Wiener, Norbert (1948), Cybernetics, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-73009-X {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Williams, Tennessee (1998). Suddenly Last Summer. Dramatists Play Service. ISBN 978-0-8222-1094-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Wood, Jeffrey C.; Wood, Minnie (2008). Therapy 101: A Brief Look at Modern Psychotherapy Techniques & How They Can Help. New Harbinger Publications. ISBN 978-1-57224-568-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |first2= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last1= at position 1 (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |last2= at position 1 (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

Online sources